De (德), commonly translated as “virtue,” “power,” “potency,” or “integrity,” represents one of the fundamental concepts in Daoist philosophy. As the second component in the title of the foundational text Daodejing (道德經), De signifies the manifestation and active expression of the Dao in the phenomenal world[1]. This concept has been central to Daoist thought from its earliest texts through the development of religious Daoism and continues to influence Chinese philosophical discourse today.
Etymology and Meaning
The Chinese character 德 (De) has been subject to extensive etymological analysis. Victor H. Mair proposes that during the early Zhou period (approximately 1100-600 BCE), De was pronounced approximately “dugh” and conveyed meanings including “character,” “intentions,” “quality,” “disposition,” “personality,” “personhood,” “personal strength,” and “worth”[2]. He notes a correlation between these meanings and words deriving from Proto-Indo-European dugh (to be fit, of use, proper; acceptable; achieve).
The character De is etymologically related to 得 (de), meaning “to acquire” or “to obtain,” suggesting that De represents an acquired quality rather than an innate characteristic[3]. Some scholars propose an etymology related to “seeing straight” or “intuition,” as early forms of the character 直 (straight) depicted a straight line over an eye.
De in Classical Daoist Texts
The Daodejing
In the Daodejing, attributed to Laozi, De represents the faculty through which the Dao manifests itself and generates all individual entities[4]. The text distinguishes between “superior virtue” (shangde 上德) and “inferior virtue” (xiade 下德). Chapter 38 of the Daodejing states:
“Persons of superior virtue are not virtuous, and that is why they have virtue. Persons of inferior virtue never stray from virtue, and that is why they have no virtue”[5].
This paradoxical formulation suggests that true De operates spontaneously and without conscious intention, in contrast to the deliberate cultivation of virtue advocated by Confucians. Laozi compares De to water, which nourishes all things while occupying lowly places despised by people, embodying the Daoist ideal of humility and naturalness[6].
The Zhuangzi
Zhuangzi further developed the concept of De, emphasizing its role in achieving unity with the Dao through practices including meditative stillness and the cultivation of wu-wei (無為, non-action)[7]. In the Zhuangzi, De appears as both a natural endowment and a spiritual achievement. The text describes how those who embody profound De move effortlessly through the world, expressing what Zhuangzi calls “mysterious virtue” (xuande 玄德).
The Zhuangzi uses the compound term “eight virtues/powers” (bade 八德) in a passage that appears to parody Confucian and Mohist ethical categories, listing: left, right, theories, debates, divisions, discriminations, emulations, and contentions[8]. This usage demonstrates the text’s characteristic playfulness with conventional moral terminology.
The Liezi
Liezi, traditionally dated to the 5th century BCE but likely compiled in the 4th century CE, continues the Daoist exploration of De within a more practical framework[9]. The text emphasizes how De manifests in skilled action and spontaneous response to circumstances, often illustrated through stories of craftsmen and other exemplars who embody effortless mastery.
Other Major Daoist Writers on De
Wenzi
The Wenzi, canonized as the Tongxuan zhenjing (通玄真經, “True Scripture of Understanding the Mysteries”) in 742 CE, presents De through a question-and-answer format between Laozi and his supposed disciple Wenzi[10]. The text integrates elements from multiple philosophical schools while maintaining a fundamentally Daoist perspective on De as natural virtue arising from harmony with the Dao.
The Huainanzi
Compiled under the patronage of Liu An (179-122 BCE), the Huainanzi synthesizes earlier Daoist thought on De within an eclectic philosophical framework[11]. The text describes how De operates through resonance (ganying 感應) between Heaven, Earth, and humanity, emphasizing the cosmic dimensions of virtue.
Neo-Daoist Interpretations
During the Wei-Jin period (220-420 CE), Neo-Daoist philosophers offered new interpretations of De:
Wang Bi (226-249 CE) emphasized De as arising from “nonbeing” (wu 無), viewing it as the natural virtue that emerges when artificial distinctions and conscious striving are abandoned[12]. His influential commentary on the Daodejing became the standard interpretation for centuries.
Guo Xiang (d. 312 CE) rejected Wang Bi’s emphasis on nonbeing, instead arguing that De manifests through “self-transformation” (zihua 自化) and the authentic expression of individual nature[13]. His commentary on the Zhuangzi emphasizes how each being possesses its own De that unfolds naturally when unimpeded.
He Yan (d. 249 CE) and Xiang Xiu (223?-300 CE) contributed to Neo-Daoist discussions of De within the Xuanxue (玄學, “Mysterious Learning”) movement, which sought to reconcile Daoist and Confucian perspectives[14].
Religious Daoism
Ge Hong (283-343 CE), author of the Baopuzi, integrated De into alchemical and religious practices, arguing that accumulating virtue through good deeds was essential for achieving immortality[15]. This marked a significant development in linking ethical conduct with spiritual transformation.
He Shanggong (2nd century CE), in his commentary on the Daodejing, interpreted De from a religious perspective, viewing it as a spiritual power cultivated through meditation and ethical practice[16].
The Relationship Between Dao and De
The relationship between Dao and De represents one of the central philosophical issues in Daoist thought. While Dao signifies the ultimate reality or cosmic principle, De represents its active manifestation in the world of particulars[17]. This relationship has been understood in various ways:
- Emanation: De as the power or virtue that flows from the Dao into individual beings
- Actualization: De as the way the Dao becomes manifest in concrete situations
- Participation: De as the degree to which beings participate in or embody the Dao
The Daodejing suggests that these two aspects “come forth together” and their coexistence constitutes the fundamental mystery of existence[18].
Translation Challenges and Interpretations
The translation of De has proven particularly challenging for Western scholars. Arthur Waley argued that “power” better captured the term’s meaning than “virtue,” explaining through a “bank of fortune” metaphor that De could be accumulated and expended[19]. Other proposed translations include:
- Virtue: The most common translation, though potentially misleading due to Western moral connotations
- Power: Emphasizing De’s efficacious aspect
- Potency: Highlighting latent capability
- Integrity: Stressing wholeness and authenticity (Mair’s preferred translation)
- Charisma: In sociological contexts
- Mana: Drawing parallels with Polynesian concepts of supernatural power
De in Practice
Wu Wei and De
The cultivation of De is intimately connected with the practice of wu wei (non-action). The Daodejing indicates that “persons of superior virtue never act (wuwei), and yet there is nothing they leave undone”[20]. This suggests that De manifests most fully when one acts in accordance with natural patterns rather than through forced effort.
Social and Political Dimensions
Daoist texts present De as having profound social and political implications. The sage ruler governs through De rather than through laws or punishments, exercising what the Daodejing calls “mysterious virtue” (xuande) that naturally brings order without coercion[21]. This political ideal influenced Chinese governance theory throughout history.
Individual Cultivation
For individual practitioners, cultivating De involves:
- Diminishing desires and artificial knowledge
- Practicing humility and placing oneself in lowly positions
- Acting with naturalness, ease, and spontaneity
- Respecting the natural dispositions of all beings
Contemporary Relevance
The Daoist concept of De continues to offer insights for contemporary philosophy, particularly in:
- Environmental Ethics: De as respecting the intrinsic nature of all beings
- Virtue Ethics: Alternatives to deontological and consequentialist approaches
- Political Philosophy: Non-coercive models of leadership and governance
- Comparative Philosophy: Bridges between Eastern and Western thought
Key Insights and Continuing Influence
The Daoist understanding of De presents a distinctive approach to virtue that emphasizes spontaneity over deliberation, naturalness over artifice, and power through yielding rather than force. This concept has profoundly influenced Chinese culture, from artistic expression to martial arts, traditional medicine to landscape design. As interpreted by successive generations of Daoist thinkers, De remains a living philosophical concept that continues to evolve while maintaining its essential connection to the ineffable Dao.
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